Advantages And Disadvantages Of Tablets In Pharmaceutical Industry

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Tablets In Pharmaceutical Industry Introduction Tablets are solid dosage forms usually containing active pharmaceutical ingredient and excipients in powder, crystalline or granular form with or without diluents which is prepared either by moulding or compression process. They are solid, biconvex or flat in shape and vary in size, shape and weight which is depends on the medicaments which are used for preparation. They are also varying in hardness, disintegration; dissolution characteristics and thickness depend on their intended use and method of manufacture. Tablets are the most widely used solid dosage forms because of their advantages and popularity increasing day by day. Tablet usually contains filler, diluents, binders, lubricants, glidants, disintegrants, antiadherent, colouring agents and flavouring agents as excipients.[Ansels Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Eighth Edition, Loyd V. Allen, Jr, Nicholos G. Popovich, Howard C. Ansel, 2005, pp-228-245] Advantages of tablets Unit dosage forms with accurate, stable dose and great precision and least variability. Most stable with respect to physical, chemical and microbiological attributes. Cheapest oral dosage form, easy to handle, use and carry out with attractive and elegant appearance. Cheap, easy to swallow and production does not require and additional processing steps. Provide protection of medicaments from atmospheric conditions like air, moisture and light, etc. Provide prolonged stability to medicaments. Low manufacturing cost as compare to other solid dosage forms and large scale production is possible. Administration of minute dose of drug in accurate amount. Unpleasant taste can be masked by sugar coating. Easy to divide into halves and quarters whenever fraction dose is required. Formulate as a special release products such as enteric or delayed release products. Packing and production is cheap and does not require more space for storage. Disadvantages of tablets Drugs which are amorphous and low density character are difficult to compress into tablet. Hygroscopic drugs are not suitable for compressed tablets. Drugs with low or poor water solubility, sloe dissolution, high absorbance in GI tract may be difficult to formulate. Sensitive to oxygen drugs may require special coating. Cost of production may be increase because of coating and encapsulation to remove bitter and unpleasant taste. Some tablet may cause problem in bioavailability. Difficult to formulate liquid in tablet and swallowing is difficult especially for children and ill patients. Types of tablets There are many types of tablets according to the intended of use and manufacturing process. [A] Oral tablet intended for ingestion Compressed tablets: Tablets can be made by compression of one or more active pharmaceutical ingredient with excipients by basic methods of tablet manufacturing. These types of tablets usually intended to provide raid drug release and disintegration. Tablets are coated after compression. Multiple compressed tablets: Multiple compressed tablets are prepared by compressing the material more than once. These are known as multiple layered tablets or tablet within tablet. Layered are depends on number of fills. Layered tablets are prepared by compaction of fill material in die followed by additional of fill material and compression. Delayed action or Enteric coated tablets: These types of tablets contain a coating which resist dissolution of tablets in Gastro Intestinal Track (GIT) and disintegrate in intestinal fluids thus rendering delayed release features. Enteric coating is generally apply when drug substance is unstable in gastric fluid and may destroyed or may cause irritation in gastric mucosa or to extent absorption of drug from intestine. Normally coating materials mixed with acid and acid functionality or modified natural polymers. Most commonly used coating polymers are: Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP) and hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose phthalate. Sugar coated tablet: Compressed tablets may be coated with coloured or uncoloured sugar coating and the coater is water soluble and dissolve quickly after swallowing. Sugar coat protects drug from environment, remove bitter taste and odour, enhance the appearance of tablet and permit identifying information. Sugar coating has some disadvantages like increase coat of production, require expertise for coating, increase size and weight. Film coated tablets: Tablets are compressed with a thin layer of polymer which forms a skin like film over tablet. The film is usually coloured, more durable and less bulky. The coating is designed to rupture and expose of tablet at desired location within GIT. Most commonly used polymers are Hydroxy propyl cellulose, Hydroxy ethyl and propyl methyl cellulose. Chewable tablet: These types of tablets have smooth surface, creamy base and usually flavoured and coloured mannitol, rapid disintegration which allow dissolving quickly in mouth. These types mostly useful for administration of large dose to children and adults. [B]Tablet used for oral cavity Buccal tablets and sublingual tablets: Buccal and sublingual tablets are flat in shape and intended to dissolve drug in buccal cavity or beneath the tongue for mucosa absorption. These techniques useful for drugs which are destroyed by gastric fluid or poor absorption in GIT. Buccal tablets erode slowly and sublingual tablets dissolve quickly and produce rapid effect. Troches and Lozenges: They are intended to slowly dissolution mostly for local effect but sometimes for systemic absorption. Troches and Lozenges are disc shaped which contain active ingredient and flavouring agent in hard candy or sugar base. Dental cones: dental cones are designed to place in the empty socket for prevention of bacterial growth and sometime bleeding by containing coagulant. Dental cones release slowly for long duration. [C] Tablets for other routes Vaginal tablet: Vaginal tablets are prepared by compression and shaped to fit snugly on plastic inserter devices in uncoated bullet shaped or ovoid tablets which are inserted into vagina for local effects with slow dissolution. They contain anti bacterial effect and also called vaginal inserts. Implantation tablet: Implantation tablets are injected under the skin by giving a small surgical cut into the skin. A special injector a hallow needle and plunger may require for administration. Purpose of these tablets is to prolong drug effect from month to year. These tablets are implanted intramuscularly or subcutaneous so they must be sterile and packed in sterile container. [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7,21] [D] Tablets for solution Effervescent tablet: Effervescent tablets prepared by compression of granular salts which release in contact with water. Dispensing tablets: These types of tablets are no longer use because they had dangerous potential. They might be termed compounding tablets because it contain highly potent drug and pharmacist use it for compound prescription. Hypodermic tablets: Hypodermic tablets are soft moulded tablets which contain soluble ingredient and used for extemporaneous parenteral preparation by physician. They are no longer in use because it is difficult to achieve sterility and availability of stable liquid. Tablet triturates: tablet triturates are rarely use now a days because they are obsolete. They are small, cylindrical, molded which contain small amount of potent drug. They must be readily soluble in water and minimum amount pressure require during manufacture. Triturates inserted into capsules or dissolved in liquid to provide accurate potent drug. Tablet Excipients: Excipients are substance other that active ingredient in formulation of tablet. The roles of excipients are to ensure tabletting operation satisfactory and ensure that tablets of specified quality are prepared. Depend on intended use; they are subcategorised in different groups. However excipients affect properties of tablets. Diluents or filler A small amount of powder requires forming suitable size tablet for easy handling. Normally tablet weigh 50mg so some amount of bulk drug requires to incorporation in formulation of tablet which enhance size of tablet. These powders known as diluents or fillers. The ideal dilute should have following properties- cheap, chemically inert, acceptable taste, good compactability and dilution capacity, biocompatible, good biopharmaceutical properties and non hygroscopic. A single substance cannot fulfil all these requirements so different substance have gained use as diluents mainly carbohydrates and inorganic salts sometimes. The most common diluent is lactose because it possess a sires of good properties like dissolves readily in water, has a pleasant taste, non hygroscopic is fairly non reactive and shows good compact ability. Its main limitation is that some people have intolerance to lactose. Basically lactose exists in two forms crystalline and amorphous. Other sugar and sugar alcohols such as glucose, sucrose, and mannitol have been used as alternative fillers, mostly in chewable tablets or lozenges because of their pleasant taste. Other important example of the filler is an inorganic substance, dicalcium phosphate dehydrate. It is insoluble in water and also non hygroscopic but have hydrophilic property i.e. easily wetted by water. It also has good flow ability and therefore it is used mostly in direct compaction. [Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007.] [ Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303.] Disintegrants: According to Michael, 2007, a disintegrant is added in formulation of tablet, which promotes drug dissolution and provide an effective surface area, when comes in contact to liquid and breaks down in small fragments. The process of disintegration for tablet occurs in main two steps [1] Tablet wets by sold and pores it [2] Breaks down of tablet into small fragments which include aggregation of primary particles into small drug particles. Disintegrant suggested in some mechanism such as swelling of particles, wetting reaction, repulsion of particle and particle recovery. Most common types of disintegrants in tablets are maize, potato and corn starch. the concentration of starch is up to 10% required but today normally modified starch or modified cellulose are used which are very high swelling disintegrants. So its requires typically 1-5% by weight which facilitate particle-particle repulsion. However, disintegrants can be mixed with other ingredients such as granules to increase effective disintegration of the tablet into smaller fragments. Leon Lachman et al, 1991, suggested that other group of disintegrants may function by producing gas, normally carbon dioxide, in contact with water. This types of disintegrants used in effervescent tablets and normally not in tablets that should be swallowed as a solid. The liberation of carbon dioxide is achieved by the decomposition of carbonate salts or bicarbonate in contact with acidic water. The acidic pH is obtained by adding citric acid and tartaric acid. [ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303] Binder Binder is added to the tablet or filler mixture to ensure that tablets and granules have sufficient mechanical strength. There are several ways to add it in powder- Mixed with powder before wet granulation which completely or partially dissolves during agglomeration process by agglomeration liquid. Mixed with other ingredient as a dry powder solution before compaction process As a solution used as agglomeration liquid during wet granulation. Typically 2-10% of binders or dry binders are used in formulation. Most tradition common binders are starch, sucrose and gelatine but now most common are polyvinylpyrrolidone and cellulose derivatives which have improved adhesive properties. Examples of dry binders are microcrystalline cellulose and crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone. Solution binders are most effective therefore it is incorporated in granules. Glidant The role of the Glidant is to improve the flow ability of the powder. Glidants are used in formulation for direct compaction but they are also used in granulation process before tabletting which ensure flow ability of tablet mass for high speed production. Traditionally talc has been used as glidant about 1-2% concentration in formulation but nowadays the most commonly used glidant is colloidal silica added in very low proportion about 0.2% by weight.[ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303] Lubricant The function of lubrication is to ensure low lubrication between solid and the die wall during tablet formation and ejection. High friction during tabletting can cause a series of problems such as inadequate tablet quality and may even stop production. Lubrication is most important which included in most of production. Lubrication can get by mainly two mechanism, fluid lubrication and boundary lubrication. In fluid lubrication, liquid is achieved between die surface and tablet surface which separates the moving surfaces of the solids from each other and reduces the friction. While in boundary lubrication, it is considered as a surface phenomenon, as here moving surface is separated by a very thin layer of lubricants. Such boundary lubricants are Stearic acid salts, primarily Magnesium Stearate which is most widely use due to its superior lubrication properties. Besides reducing friction, lubricants may also causes undesirable changes such as reducing tablet strength with bonding between the particles during compaction. Because of hydrophobic properties of lubricants, tablet disintegration and dissolution are often retarded by the addition of lubricants. Thus, minimum amount of lubricants are used, i.e. concentrations of 1% or below, often 0.25-0.5%.in order to avoid these negative effects, more hyd rophilic substances have been suggested as alternatives to the hydrophobic lubricants. For example, surface active agents and polyethylene glycols and sometimes a combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances might also be used. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Antiadherent Antiadherent are substance which reduce adhesion between powder and punch faces which prevent sticking of particles to punches. The sticking is mainly affected by moisture content of the powder. Such adherence especially prone to happen if the tablet punches have marking or symbols which lead to a build of thin layer of powder on the punches which in turn will lead to an uneven and matt tablet surface with unclear markings or symbols. Some lubricants such as Magnesium Stearate have also antiadherent properties. However, other substances with limited ability to reduce friction can also act as antiadherent such as talc and starch. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Sorbents Sorbents are substances which has capacity to sorbing some quantities of fluid into dry state. So oil and oil-drug solutions can be incorporated into mixture of powder and compacted into tablets. Most commonly used sorbents are Microcrystalline Cellulose and Silica. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Flavouring agents Flavouring agents are incorporated into a formulation to remove unpleasant taste of bitter drug or to make tablet more pleasant or mask. This can be achieved by coating or by adding some drug particles. Most of Flavouring agents are thermolabile so it cannot be added in process which involve heating. They are mixed with granules as alcoholic solution. Colouring agents The aim to add colourant is to aid identification of tablet, improve looks of tablet and patient compliance. Mostly, colourant are added during coating of tablet but some of colourant may be added in formulation prior to compaction. Colourant may be added as an insoluble powder or dissolved in granulation liquid and the latter procedure may produce colour variation by migration of soluble dye during drying stage. Method of tablet preparation Three types method of tablet preparation- [1] Direct compression method [2] Wet granulation [3] Dry granulation Direct compression method Some chemicals have free flowing and cohesive properties so they are enable to compress directly in a tablet machine without granulation of it. Some chemicals lacking of these qualities so some excipients like filler, disintegrants agents, lubricants and glidants are used to impart these qualities for production of tablets by direct compression. Figure (A) Steps of direct compression tableting Some precaution must be taken during direct compression to avoid air entrapment which cause capping, splitting, or laminating of tablets. Forced feeders or induced feeders are used to reduce air entrapment, make filling powder more dense and amenable to compaction. Capping also may be caused by punches that are not perfectly clean and flawlessly smooth or by too much fines granulation. Some aged or improperly stored tablets also may exhibit splitting and other physical deformations. Wet granulation Granulation is process in which primary powder particles are made to form large and these types of multi particle called granules. In pharmaceutical industry, granules are useful in production of tablets and capsules in ranges of particle size between0.2 to 0.5mm. Granulation prevents segregation of constituents of powder, improve flow ability of powder, improve compaction characteristics of mixture and reduce toxic dust. Wet granulation is widely used method for production of compressed tablets which include flowing steps- Weighting and blending In this step, specified quantities of active ingredient, diluents or fillers, and disintegrating agents are mixed by mechanical powder blender or mixture until uniform. Most widely used fillers are lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, starch, powdered sucrose, and calcium phosphate. Selections of filler depend on the experience of manufacture, cost and compatibility with formulation. Among the fillers, lactose is most preferred because of its solubility and compatibility, and microcrystalline cellulose, because of its easy compaction compatibility and consistent uniformity of supply. Disintegrating agents include croscarmellose, corn and potato starches, sodium starch glycolate, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVP), cation exchange resins, alginic acid and other materials which swell or expand on exposure to moisture and helps to breakup tablets in gastrointestinal track (GIT). Mainly croscarmellose and sodium starch glycolate are used because of their high water uptake and rapid action. Mostly up to 5-10% of starch is suitable for formulation, but up to about 20% may be used to facilitate more rapid tablet disintegration. The total amount of disintegrant is not always used but sometime it added in preparation of granulation and sometime half of it added to tablet formation which called double disintegration of tablet. One portion of disintegrant assist breakup of tablet into pieces and other portion breakup pieces into particles. Preparation of Damp Mass A liquid binder is now added to the powder to facilitate adhesion of powder particles. A damp mass resembling dough is formed and used to prepare the granulation. A good binder is very important for hardness of tablet and does not hinder the release of drug from the tablet. Most widely used binders are povidone, an aqueous preparation of corn starch (10-20%), methyl cellulose (3%), carboxymethylcellulose, and microcrystalline cellulose. Some drugs may be adversely affected by an aqueous binder then non-aqueous solutions or dry binder may be used. The amount of binders is a part of operation which maintains integrity of tablet after compression. However, care must be exercised not to over or underwet powder otherwise underwet can result too hard granules for proper tablet formulation and overwet can result too soft and tend to crumble in under wetting. After getting desired dump mass a colorant or flavorant may be added to prepare a granulation with an added features. Screening Damp Mass into Pellets and Granules The Dump Mass is pressed through 6 or 8 mesh size to prepare granules. This process may be done by hand or by special equipment which prepares granules by extrusion process. The final product are spread on large piece of paper in trays and dried. Drying the granulation Granules may be dried in special drying cabinets which is thermostatically controlled at constantly record the time, temperature and humidity. Fluid bed drier and tray drier are commonly used for during process. Sizing the granulation by Dry Screening After drying, the granules are passed through a screen of a smaller mess than that used to prepare the original granulation. The size of granules depends upon the size of the punches to be used. Usually 12 to 20 mesh sizes are used for granulation. Sizing of the granules is necessary so that the die cavities for tablet compression may be completely or rapidly filled by the free flowing granules. Voids or air spaces left by too large a granulation result in production of uneven tablets. Adding Lubrication and Blending After dry screening, a dry lubricant is spread over the granulation through a fine mess screen which contributes to preparation of compressed tablets. Among the most commonly used lubricants are talc, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, and sodium stearyl fumarate in ranges of 0.1% to 5%. Lubricants improve flow property of granules form hooper ti die, prevent adhesion during compaction, reduce friction between die and punch and provide a sheen final product. Figure (B) Tablet compression by wet granulation [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7, 21] Some special wet granulation techniques High shear mixture granulation Fluid bed granulation Extrusion- spheronisation Spray drying Dry granulation In this method, powder mixer is compressed in large pieces and subsequently broken down or sized into granules. In this method, either active ingredient or diluent must have cohesive properties. This method is basically applied to materials which cannot be prepared by wet granulation because of moisture degradation properties or thermo-mobile properties of granules. It is carried out by two steps: Slugging: After weighing and the mixing of ingredients, the powder mixture is slugged or compressed into large flat tablets about one inch in diameter. Slugs are than broken up hand or mill and passed through a screen of desired mess for sizing and sometimes lubricant are added and prepared by compression. Roller compaction: Instead of slugging, powder compactors may be used to increase the density of a powder by pressing it between rollers at 1 ton to 6 tons of pressure. The compact material is broken up, sized, and lubricated, and tablets are prepared by compression. Commonly used binding agents are methyl cellulose or hydroxylmethyl cellulose (6-12%) which produces good hardness and friability of tablet. Figure (C) Tablet compression by Dry Granulation [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7, 21] Tableting of granulation: There are different types of tabletting machines which are used in the productivity but similar in basic function and operation. They all compress tablet formulation within steel die cavity by the pressure exerted by the movement of two steel punches, lower punch and an upper punch. Problems in manufacture of tablet Capping and lamination: Capping means partial and complete separation of the top or bottom crowns of a tablet from main body of a tablet. While lamination is term used to describe the separation of the two or more distinct layers. Some reasons which are responsible for these problems are as follows: Air is entrapped among the particles during the compression process and does not escape until compression pressure is released. Die wall pressure causes enough internal stress to cause a crack which is due to plastic deformation of the particles during compaction. Sometimes due to deep concave or bevelled edge punches. Development of wear ring. This problem can reduced or eliminated by slowing tabletting rate, granules with sufficient moisture, pre-compression, using flat punches, correct adjustment punches. [Porter, S C, 1981, Tablet coating, Drug Cosmetic Indu, May 46, June 44, Aug 40, Sept 50] Weight variation: This is very important in process control measurement. If anything that can alter the die filling process can alter tablet weight, it causes weight variation because the weight of the tablet being compressed is determined by the amount of the granulation in the die prior to compression. Some causes of variation are large granules, poor mixing of granules with lubricants and glidants, poor granulation flow from hopper, double impression and punch variation. Picking Picking is the term used to describe the surface material from tablet that is sticking to being removed from the tablets surface by a punch. It concerns when punching tips have engraving or embossing Sticking Sticking is usually referred to adhesion of tablet material to die wall. Because of that, lower punch cannot move freely and additional force is required to overcome friction between die wall and the tablet. These problems can be solved by design large lettering, adding polishing agent such as colloidal silica or additional lubricants. Some low melting point substances such as polyethylene glycol may also cause sticking at the heat of compression. Such Remedies are addition of high melting point materials and consequently increasing size of tablet. Mottling: Mottling is term used unequal distribution of colour on a tablet with light and dark areas. Its due to colour difference of drug with excipients or drugs whose degradation product is coloured. Such problems might be solved by using colorants but it can cause mottling on the top of surface when granulation undergoes drying. To overcome difficulties, it require to change solvent system, binder system and by reducing temperature. Tablet coating Tablet coating is application of coating of material to the exterior of tablet with some intentional benefits. It is also intended for modified release applications. Main three types of coating are- Film coating Sugar coating Press coating Coating of tablets are for following purposes- [1] Protection from environment, light and moisture [2] To remove bitter taste of some tablets and for easy swallowing of tablets [3] Colour coating mask differences in appearance which effect on patient compliance [4] Rapid identification by manufacturer, pharmacist and patient [5] Functional films can enable sustained and enteric protection [6] Improve looks (elegance), masks and minor difference in raw material appereance [7] Enhance strength, reduce dust and cross contamination Film coating This is more modern and widely used for tablet coating. Most of newly launched coated products are film coated rather than sugar coating. Film coating involves covering of tablet by thin film layer of coating liquid (polymer). Coating liquid is sprayed in a rotating tablet bed or bed fluidised tablet which contains plasticizer, polymer, colourant and solvent. The drying condition permits removal of solvent and leaves a thin layer around each tablet. Sometimes aqueous solution or organic solutions are used to reduce elimination of volatile organic compound, health and safety and cost reduction purposes. Film coating polymer should have following properties- [1] Optimum solubility to facilitate dissolution of final product. High soluble for immediate release and low soluble for controlled release. [2] Optimum viscosity to permit and trouble free spraying of solution. [3] Optimum permeability to optimize shelf life of tablet preparation and some tuned to provide an effective barrier oxygen and water vapour. [4] Good mechanical strength to withstand the impact and abrasion encountered in normal handling which avoids cracks and imperfections. Cellulose derivatives like Hydroxypropylmethylcellulosa (HPMC), methylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) and Methacrylate amino ester copolymer are available polymer for film coating. Sugar coating Sugar coating involves the successive application of sucrose based solutions to tablet cores in suitable equipment. Some stages in production of sugar coated tablets are- [1] Sealing of tablet core- provide water proofing core from coating process and shellac, cellulose acetate phthalate are normally used in sealing process. [2] Sub coating- it is the actual start of sugar coating which provides necessary build-up to roundup the tablet edge. Bulking agents such as calcium carbonate or talc added in sucrose solution with gum. [3] Smoothing it increases tablet size to predetermined dimension by syrup solution. This solution contains pigments, starch, gelatine, acacia or opacifier. [4] Colouring- dyes or pigments [5] Polishing- tablets need to be polished to achieve final elegance by waxes like beeswax, carnubawax or hard paraffin. [6] Printing Difference between sugar and film coating Press coating Press coating involves compaction of granules material around core of tablet with the use of compressing equipment like Manesty Drycota. Today press coating is used in to separate incompatible placed core and coating layer. This process requires some care and large or irregularly sized agglomerate of granules may cause core to tilt in die. Disadvantages of process arise from complexities of mechanism used in compression equipment. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Sc

Grenada :: essays research papers

For a country as powerful as the United States, there comes a responsibility to protect its allies, neighbors, and supremely itself. However, there are times when this sense of responsibility misleads the U.S. into using force that is excessive or unnecessary. We are walking a fine line of political laissez-faire and obligation to intervene, but add the element of a  ¡Ã‚ °Lyndon Johnson ¡Ã‚ ¯s obsessive fear of the spread of Castro-style communism ¡Ã‚ ± (Musicant 363), and consequently, we will find ourselves resurrecting gun boat diplomacy and the Monroe Doctrine. Although under the veil of ensuring safety to our citizens, the invasion of Grenada is an example of where we overstepped our legal bounds, fabricated justifications and reacted without preparation, inconsiderate of the criticism which was definite to follow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A main concern of the United States was its 1,000 citizens on the island. Of these citizens, 600 were medical students at St. George University. Because of the political turmoil, the U.S. stated to its public that the students and citizens on Grenada were in danger. President Reagan also stated to the press that there was no way for our citizens to get off the island. However, the State Department had issued a formal note to Grenada asking about the safety of its citizen, to which the minister of external affairs replied,  ¡Ã‚ ° The interest of the United States citizens are in no way threatened by the present situation ... which the Ministry hastens to point out is a purely internal affair ¡Ã‚ ±(Musicant 374). The Chancellor of the school, Charles Modica, was announcing that the students were in no danger, and that the school was expected to continue to have good relations with the  ¡Ã‚ °Government ¡Ã‚ ± (Weinberger 108). This display of good will coincid ed with the report Margaret Thatcher, Britian ¡Ã‚ ¯s Prime Minister, received from the Deputy High Commissioner in Bridgetown, Barbados, who had visited Grenada, that the British citizens were safe and that the new regime was cooperating in making arrangement for those who wished to leave(Thatcher 330). The same cooperation was being offer to the U.S., contradicting the President ¡Ã‚ ¯s statement, which was made long after notification from Grenada that Americans were free to leave on regular or charter flights. Also clearly in contradiction was Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North report to the press stating that the airports were open for two hour even the day before the invasion (Speakes 161-162). There was no evidence that the student or citizens were in any danger, except during the invasion.

Identify & evaluate marketing opportunities Essay

Introduction Business can be a profit or a loss it depends on marketing plan. So before starting a business everyone should think about market of that product. Good and planned marketing can be profitable for business. Market research is very important for market planing. Market research is based on geographical area. Target market is based on type of product some vegetarian people don†t like the product that cooked in non-vegetarian food kitchen. Company†s internal and external environment plays an important role in success of business if it is good then the business can be more successful then competitors but the competitor†s strengths can not be avoided in  business. SWOT plays an important role in business so everyone should be careful about there strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Product PIZZA HUT have a good market. This may have to do with the fact there is not just one Pizza, but there are a lot of different kinds of toppings and even styles for its base, thus being international diverse and delicious for all kind of different taste-buds from all over the world. Pizza hut take great pride and care to provide you with the best food and experience in the pizza business by only using the freshest of ingredients when making your pizza. Eating sensibly, combined with appropriate exercise, is the best solution for a balanced lifestyle. Pizza can be a part of a well-balanced meal. Ingredients in our pizzas include protein, complex carbohydrates, Vitamin A and calcium. And, depending on the toppings you choose, our pizzas have items from all of the four major food groups – meat, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, and grains! So take a closer look within our menu for suggestions when counting kilojoules and fat grams. TARGET MARKET – Customers of pizza are the people who interests to buy the pizza. Customers in the area people of houses, shops and other people who drive through the road. All ages of people are the customers of pizza. But some vegetarian people don’t want to eat in that type shops where everything means all veg and non-veg is cooking at same place so they might hesitate to go and eat pizzas. In market research we should think about this categories. For kids the chocolates and cold drinks are available there. Pizza delivers deliver pizza in houses. With survey it can be found what customers usually wants to get the pizza at home delivery. There are all ages off people living there and with monkey survey we can find rich people with better pizza demand and middle class people with normal quality pizza demands. According to customers’ needs make all types of pizzas? Expensive pizza for rich people for rich people with expensive ingredients and normal pizzas are available at reasonable price. All ages of people are the customers of pizza. For kids the chocolate and cold drinks can sell there. There is website on Internet of pizza shop; by visiting that  everyone can come to know about the menu and service provided. business cards and pamphlets can distribute in food shops so people can see and come to pizza shop. Distributing of pamphlets in houses letter boxes is also a good idea to attract the customers to attract the children we offer chocolates and cold drinks in our shop. fresh quality ingredients for pizzas and choose good recopies to cook the pizzas. Geographical Area- parramata to Sydney Market research for pizza shop For market research we search on abs Dandenong because if the pizza shop on heathen road it is in between Dandenong and noble park so in 2006 the population of Dandenong can be find 130751 in which different ages people are living in this area most of them likes non-vegetarian pizzas. With the market research we can find that there are those people whom we are going to market are the people with families with children 30 and some with no children registered marriage 1433 total 1504, step family with no children registered marriage 67 total 94. around 1682 families blending are our customers. If we see the income of these families –couple with no children have total around -1320, couple with children -1682, one parent family -890, other family have -119, total have- 4011 and they can spend a good amount on pizza. In these families people aged 12 to 50 likes to eat pizzas. With monkey survey we found that those family people and people aged 12 to 50 likes all types of pizzas some people likes vegetarian but many people likes non-vegetarian and species pizzas and most of them likes to home delivery so this is the good market that we select for our business. For children we sell chocolates, cokes, coffee, other desserts that can attract more people. Marketing promotion special offer buy 1 get 1 free By offering one pizza free with one in starting can attract more customers than other shops. By attracting more customers in starting can help to run the business successfully. According to customers’ needs all types of pizzas  are there. Expensive pizza for rich people for rich people with expensive ingredients and normal pizzas are available at reasonable price. All ages of people are the customers of pizza. For kids the chocolate and cold drinks are available there. Company’s micro-environment Company†s microenviornment includes internal enviornment+external enviornment that includes suppliers, stakeholders,distributers, customers, competetors, competetions, rules, techonology used for marketing of product. company†s internal enviornment can be changed according to needs of business. Internal enviornment which includes staff, suppliers, price etc should be appropriate according to needs. Good training should be given to staff. Supplier with good service and price should be reasonable. company†s external enviornment like government rules, natural enviornment, competetiors, competetion can†t be changed. So every businesman should be very careful about this. Competitors Today there is a great competition in food industry there are many restaurants, grocery shops, cafe, pizza shops, vegetable shops, shops of fries and chips and other food in the food market which have a great competition in each other. Pizza hut is one of them it is necessary choose better qualities and fresh ingredients to make good products and attract more customers. Pizza shop should have good quality pizzas delicious recipes, good taste, fresh ingredients, nice pizzas, people can taste once and come again and again. competitor of a pizza shop there is opposite the market that is an old shop but this is the modern one with modern facilities. Quality pizzas at affordable price and offering other products like chocolate, cold drinks etc. that attracts more customers. Other competitors are like Hungry jacks, Mac Donald, Lord of fries may attract customers but our pizza shop is away from the market in geographical location can attract all the customers near to us. On the other hand crispy pizzas and home delivery will attract all the customers.Today there is a great compilation in food industry there are many restaurants, grocery  shops, cafes, pizza shops, vegetable shops, shops of fries and chips and other foods in the food market which have a great competition in each other. Our pizza hut is one of them we choose better qualities and fresh ingredients to make our products and attract more customers. In the past, Pizza Hut has always had the first mover advantage. Their marketing strategy in the past has always been to be first. One of their main strategies that they still follow today is the diversification of the products they offer. Pizza Hut is always adding something new to their menu, trying to reach new markets. For example, in 1992 the famous buffet was launched in Pizza Hut restaurants worldwide. They were trying to offer many different food items for customers who didn’t necessarily want pizza. SWOT- Strengths- Pizza dough is made fresh daily according to an old recipe from natural ingredients, so people can be assured the best and freshest pizzas every time, they’ll find dough is crispy on the outside and fluffy on the inside , use the finest Australian fresh produce and hand cut our fresh capsicums and onions daily. Delivery is daily from 12.30pm – 10.30pm and only costs $2, delivery time can vary between 30-60minutes. Pizza Hut is the market leader in providing different products of pizzas as there are no competitors in this sector. There good image makes the organization more strong. Pizza Hut is providing good taste, quality products with qualified staff, good atmosphere and hygienic environment. They are specialized in pizzas. Motivation level of staff is very high which make the organization more prosperous. Weaknesses There is a lack of an organic pizzas, which will limit the target market. The shortage of parking can be a problem for a pizza hut that effect on customer attraction. It is hard to find the trained staff for a pizza and it costs a lot to train staff and consume more time. Opportunities Pizza Hut can introduce new Pizzas with different crust sizes and flavors. This may attract new customers with new tastes and this may increase their sales. New market can be explored and new opportunities can be gain. Pizza  can come with new product considering the eastern taste. Threats New entrance of domino’s pizza in the Dandenong market can effect the business but new ideas is our strength. The other local restaurants can affect the market by providing pizza at low price. 1) Marketing mix.. 2)  Elements of the marketing mix are often referred to as the â€Å"Four P’s†, a phrase Product differentiation is required and is one of the strategies to differentiate a product from its competitors. Price The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. The business may increase or decrease the price of product if other stores have the same product. Place Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often referred to as the distribution channel. It can include any physical store as well as virtual stores on the Internet. Promotion represents all of the communications that a marketeer may use in the marketplace. Promotion has four distinct elements: advertising, public relations, personal selling and sales promotion. Advertising covers any communication that is paid for, from cinema commercials, radio and Internet adverts through print media and billboards. Public relations are where the communication is not directly paid for and includes press releases, sponsorship deals, exhibitions, conferences, seminars or trade fairs and events. Word of mouth is any apparently informal communication about the product by ordinary individuals, satisfied customers or people specifically engaged to create word of mouth momentum. Sales staff often plays an important role. Conclusion Pizza hut is a good business with appropriate marketing planning. The marketing planning need good market research, planned target market, SWOT analysis, market mix etc. 3) Pizza hut is awesome because many people enjoy eating in this place. Pizza hut can be a family place or you can eat there alone. many varieties of pizza are best at pizza hut, They’ re hospitality  is awesome in pizza hut you can experience good food, great service! 4) For success in pizza business it is necessary to be careful about the weakness, competetior†s activities, customers†s choice and price. Australian Bureau of Statistics National Regional Profile: Greater Dandenong (C) (Local Government Area) POPULATION/PEOPLE ——————————————————————————————————————————— 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 ———————————————————————————————————————————- POPULATION BY SEX – at 30 June Males no. 64 090 63 983 64 105 64 633 65 922 Females no. 64 086 63 998 64 042 64 197 64 829 Persons no. 128 176 127 981 128 147 128 830 130 751 POPULATION BY AGE GROUP – at 30 June Persons – 0 to 14 years % 18.8 18.7 18.6 18.5 18.7 Persons – 15 years to 24 years % 15.0 15.0 14.9 14.7 14.5 Persons – 25 years to 34 years % 15.2 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 Persons – 35 years to 44 years % 14.4 14.1 14.0 13.9 13.9 Persons – 45 years to 54 years % 13.7 13.6 13.5 13.5 13.4 Persons – 55 years to 64 years % 10.2 10.5 10.8 10.9 11.0 Persons – 65 years to 74 years % 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.2 7.1 Persons – 75 years to 84 years % 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.9 Persons – 85 years and over % 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 INDUSTRY ———————————————————————————————————————————– 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 ———————————————————————————————————————————– BUILDING APPROVALS – year ended 30 June Private sector houses no. 221 261 413 578 410 Total dwelling units no. 395 377 642 738 615 Value of total residential building $m 55. 4 60.1 114.4 147.6 120.2 Value of total non-residential building $m 97.9 186.4 222.0 218.0 234.8 Value of total building $m 153.2 246.4 336.4 365.6 355.0 Number per 1,000 population Passenger vehicles no. 572 580 587 592 591 Campervans no. 1 1 1 1 1 Light commercial vehicles no. 69 71 72 74 75 Light rigid trucks no. 5 5 6 6 7 page 7 AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES * – year ended 30 June Total area Area of holding 1 384.3 Cereals for grain 199.5 Vegetables for human consumption 137.7 Orchard trees (including nuts 1.2 All fruit (excluding grapes 1.2 Non-cereal broadacre crops 19.2.

Aviation Weather Community

Sample details Pages: 17 Words: 5068 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? It is quite obvious that aviation plays a major role in todays society. Aviation services have become vital to the nations economy, national security, and to the safety of life and property. In particular, aviation weather services prove useful because they are used to support our national defense and humanitarian missions, transportation of people and commerce, hurricane reconnaissance, and emergency medical helicopter missions. Basically every flight ranging from the newest student pilot to shuttle missions require some sort of weather-related screening for safety precautions before flight. The aviation weather community is constantly improving data gathering and prediction products and services in order to reduce the rate of fatal aviation accidents. There are grand improvements on getting information to the user in a timely and mission tailored manner. Also of importance is improving provider and user training, and implementing sound weather decision making processes. According to a speech delivered by Samuel Williamson, Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, A new system designed to improve the flow of air traffic during severe weather helped reduce delays by seven percent last month (Williamson, 2000). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Aviation Weather Community | Engineering Dissertations" essay for you Create order Current technologies include: implementation of Flight Information Service (FIS) capabilities between the ground and cockpit; development and implementation of multifunctional color cockpit displays incorporating FIS products; expansion and institutionalization of the generation, dissemination, and use of automated pilot reports (PIREPs), including type of observation, to the full spectrum of the aviation community, including general aviation; improvement on weather forecasting services across all service areas; development and implementation of aviation weather-related training packages for Air Traffic Control service providers, pilots, and other users; improvement on aviation weather telecommunications capabilities for ground-to-ground dissemination of aviation weather products, including bulk weather data distribution; and finally improvement on objective standards for characterizing various weather phenomena for national and international use. There are constantly major collaborative efforts in projects to update these technologies. Participating organizations include: The Federal Aviation Industry (FAA), The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States Department Of Defense (DOD), and other industry, university, and association partners. The long a steady improvements in aviation safety experienced in the mid 80s and early 90s had plateaued out. Only through such collaborations are efficient and residual improvements possible. This mesh of government and industry resulted in a four tiered planning process Tier one began in late 1996, and is based around the sentiment that weather, in and of itself, does not cause accidents. It concentrated on creating better weather reporting and forecast to assist pilots, dispatchers, and controllers to make better and timelier weather decisions. Also included is to design and manufacture better aircraft. The result of that effort was the publication in 1997 of the National Aviation Weather Program Strategic Plan. Tier two was a matter of getting the details. It concentrated on developing specific things that needed to be done in several areas and then to prioritize them according to their contribution either to safety or efficiency. The priority setting was very heavily weighted on the side of the air carrier operations. The result of tier two was the publication, in early 1999, of the National Aviation Weather Initiative. Tier three and four are proceeding concurrently and occupy the present moment. The focus of tier three is to identify whos doing what, from the tier two activities, and then to find holes that need to be worked on. Some of the projects require long-term infrastructure, development, and capital investment planning. Others are non-material solutions such as procedures or scientific research. Tier four consists of budgets and schedules. This includes actually securing the financial resources, allocating the personnel and fiscal resources, and establishing and track schedules. In February 1997, the White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security recommended a national goal for government and industry of reducing the rate of fatal aviation accidents by a factor of five per 100,000 flight hours, equivalent to an 80% reduction, within 10 years (OFCM, Ops. For Implementation pg.2-1). Safety research and technology improvements were recognized as essential elements in achieving this goal. Both the FAA and NASA adopted this proposal in their strategic plans. The 1999 report by the Joint Action Group for Aviation Weather, National Aviation Weather Initiatives, included efforts underway in the aviation industry and programs with industry, academic, and governmental partners. Furthermore, it adopted the 80% reduction goal and suggested that a reduction in weather-related accidents, as shown by National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident statistics, could be used as an overall measure of success for the current aviation weather initiatives. In the proceedings of the aviation weather user forum in Bethesda, Maryland of 2000, four major objectives/goals were set for the Aviation Weather community: to highlight programs/processes which have been implemented recently, or are now ready for implementation, to identify ongoing programs which show promising results and must be supported with continuing resources to reach fruition, to illuminate gaps where no work in ongoing or planned, and to identify overlaps and assess them (OFCM, Ops. For Implementation pg.4-1). In August 2003, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM) released the National Aviation Weather Program Mid-Course Assessment. The assessment adopted the 80% percent reduction in accidents as a benchmark for assessing progress and seeking areas where more effort, or a redirection of effort, may be worthwhile. It adopted the analytical approach of distributing the goal of an 80% reduction in fatal accidents across the three principal regulatory categories for aircraft and across categories for weather-related aviation hazards. Flights of aircraft capable of carrying 10 or more passengers by a common carrier are regulated under Part 121 of the Federal Aviation Regulations. All noncommercial and nonmilitary aviation is covered under part 91. Revenue-generating flights not covered under part 121, including scheduled passenger service in aircraft with fewer than 10 seats and nonscheduled passenger and cargo service, are covered by part 135. In 2002, there were no fatal weather-related accidents involving Part 121 aircraft. The rate per 100,000 departures for all weather-related accidents continued to decrease. Turbulence and convection hazards continued to dominate the weather hazards cited in Part 121 accidents. Of the nine weather-related accidents in 2002 involving Part 121 aircraft, seven involved turbulence and convection hazards. In the preliminary data for 2003, 11 of 12 weather-related accidents are in this category (OFCM, Programs/Projects 2004 pg.8). The fatal accident rates for Part 91 accidents from all causes and for weather-related accidents increased in 2002 relative to 2001. However, the trend since 1997 for weather-related fatal accidents still achieves the goal of an 80% or higher reduction in accidents. The total weather-related accident rate also increased to the highest level (1.35 per 100,000 flight hours) since the 1998 rate of 1.43 per 100,000 flight hours. When the data are analyzed by weather hazard categories, the 2002 rates continued on a downward trend for precipitation (non-icing hazards). In the categories of restricted visibility, icing hazards, and en route and terminal winds, 2002 rates are higher than 2001, however a satisfactory downward trend is still in tact. For turbulence and convection hazards, a small increase in fatal accidents leaves the trend on track to meet the 2006 goal. However, a larger relative increase for total accidents with turbulence or convection hazards cited as a factor has shifted that trend above its 2006 goal (0.29 versus 0.15 accidents per 100,000 flight hours). For temperature and lift, hazards, there were increases in 2002 much above the previous trend for both fatal and total weather-related accident rates. Neither trend would now meet an 80% reduction by 2006. The increases in both total and fatal accidents were entirely due to high density altitude. The 2003 Nall report on accident trends and factors in the general aviation community, prepared and published by the AOPA Air Safety Foundation, found that visual flight rule (VFR) flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) resulted in the greatest number of fatal weather accidents for the general aviation categories it covers. In the category of restricted visibility and ceiling hazards, of 67 total weather-related accidents, 50 involved fatalities, by far the highest percentage among the categories analyzed. These 50 fatalities represent 68% of the weather-related fatalities in all of Part 91. The hazard categories of precipitation, icing conditions, and temperature and lift hazards also had relatively high proportions of fatal accidents (OFCM, Programs/Projects 2004 pg.7). The total weather-related accident rate for Part 135 aviation decreased in 2002, shifting the trend from an upward to a downward slope. The fatal accident rate and the trend were little changed from the previous years analysis in the Mid-Course Assessment. The hazard category trends observed continued with little change for the categories of restricted visibility and ceiling hazards, precipitation (non-icing) hazards, icing conditions, turbulence and convective hazards, and en route and terminal winds. For temperature and lift hazards, a second year in a row with no accidents has shifted the trend from and upward to a downward slope (OFCM, Programs/Projects 2004 pg.8). National Aviation Weather Initiatives defined the eight service areas and 86 initiatives used in OFCM reports on Aviation Weather Programs and Projects. The initiatives are as follows: ceiling and visibility (14 initiatives), convective hazards (12 initiatives), en route winds and temperatures (7 initiatives), ground de-icing and anti-icing (6 initiatives), in-flight icing (15 initiatives), terminal winds and temperatures (11 initiatives), turbulence (12 initiatives), and volcanic ash and other airborne hazardous materials (9 initiatives) (JAG, Aviation Weather Initiatives. pg. 1-3). In the case of ceiling and visibility, low reduced visibility is safety hazards for all types of aviation. The NASDAC study of NTSB statistics indicated that ceiling and visibility were cited as contributing factors in 24% of all general aviation accidents between 1989 and early 1997 (NTSB, Aviation Accident Database). They were also cited as contributing factors in 37% of commuter/air taxi accidents during the same period. Generally low ceiling and poor visibility accidents occur when pilots who are not properly rated or are flying aircraft not equipped with the necessary instrumentation encounter such conditions, resulting in loss of control or controlled flight into terrain. Ideally, aircraft should, with sufficient weather information and proper planning, be able to avoid conditions of low ceiling or poor visibility. In practice, this is not always possible. However, a number of improvements should serve to make this service area more effective. Weather observation and reporting systems need to be expanded to provide better resolution for ceiling and visibility observations and forecasts. Capabilities for accurate measurement of runway visual range need to be extended to more airports and reporting systems developed to include this information in observation products. Capabilities for producing accurate localized forecasts of ceiling and visibility need to be refined for both civilian and military applications. Ceiling and visibility observations, analysis, and forecast products need to be provided to decision makers in clear and understandable formats, both textual and graphic. Such products must be disseminated as rapidly as possibly to ATC providers and airline operations centers, especially during periods when conditions are changing rapidly. Pilot training must stress the need for constant awareness of current and expected ceiling and visibility conditions. Many accidents occur because pilots either underestimate the severity or conditions of fly into conditions they did not expect. Training for information providers should emphasize the dangers of rapidly changing ceiling and visibility conditions and help providers develop strategies for dealing with various scenarios that are likely to occur. Convective hazards are associated with convective activity, such as thunderstorms and tropical cyclones, and also with clear air phenomena such as vertical currents caused by surface heating. These hazards include severe turbulence in and close to storms, intense up and downdrafts, lightning, hail, heavy precipitations, and tornadoes. Convective hazards pose a danger to both en route and terminal operations. According to the NASDAC analysis, between 1989 and early 1997 thunderstorms were listed as a contributing factor in 2-4% of weather related accidents. Precipitation was listed as a factor in 6% of commercial air carrier accidents, roughly 10% of general aviation accidents, and nearly 19% or commuter/air taxi accidents (NTSB, Aviation Accident Database). Convective storms are a frequent occurrence throughout the U.S. at all times. Reducing the rate of accidents and delays relating to convective hazards requires ensuring that they are identified as quickly as possible and that sufficient information is disseminated to allow decision makers to plan avoidance strategies. Observations from a wide range of sensors need to be captured frequently and rapidly to identify convective storms as they develop. Once convective activity begins, data sampling rates need to be high enough to capture sudden storm intensification, tornadoes, hail production, and heavy precipitation development. Algorithms to all more rapid assimilation of this information into models which produce accurate, timely, high-resolution forecasts need to be perfected. Users must have products that are accurate, reliable, and readily understood. Graphics and text-based products that are applicable to specific requirements can be invaluable to ATC service providers, aircraft operations managers, and aircrews for planning rapid responses to convective hazards. These products would be most valuable if they quickly portray the expected intensity, duration, and forecast path of convective activity, especially in the terminal area. Winds and temperatures encountered en route play a role in determining the route an aircraft actually takes to reach its destination and how long it takes to get there. Pilots routinely take advantage of tail winds to increase over-the-ground speed while conserving fuel. On the other hand, head winds slow an aircrafts progress and require increased fuel usage to maintain a planned schedule. Strong head winds can lead to delays, diversions, and, in some cases, accidents. Variations in temperature aloft cause changes in engine efficiency and flight characteristics in some aircraft, which in turn may require changes to the intended route of flight. The fundamental point is that pilots need to be continually aware of the changing nature of the atmosphere along their route in order to be able to react in a safe, efficient, and timely manner. A number of improvements in this area are called for, primarily in the area of producing weather-related information. The primary issue is one of data density and accuracy. The only way to produce timely and accurate analysis and forecast products is to obtain as much accurate information as possible and assimilate it in a timely fashion. This is especially important over oceanic and remote regions where ground-based reports are sparse. More types and greater numbers of aircraft need to be equipped to send automated PIREPs to the National Weather Service and to the airline operations centers. Aircraft-based reports of wind speeds, temperatures, humidity, and icing and turbulent conditions will prove to be a valuable adjunct to the existing network of observing stations. The observation network also needs to be expanded to include conditions at high levels and close to the ground. The comprehensive product suite developed for improved weather information needs to be delivered to users in formats that are both tailored to specific needs and readily understood without additional interpretation. Both graphical and textual products are needed as well as gridded products for computer flight planning systems. Communications systems need to be improved to deliver the products as rapidly as possible. In the case of ground de-icing and anti-icing, aircraft on the ground during periods of freezing or frozen precipitation and other icing conditions are susceptible to the buildup of ice on control surfaces, instrument orifices, propellers, and engine inlets and interiors. Aircraft that are moving along taxiway and runway surfaces in slush or standing water at near-freezing conditions are also susceptible to surface contamination, even after the precipitation has stopped. Ice layers not removed from the wings and tail areas prior to takeoff can degrade lift and reduce the pilots ability to climb, even to the point of stalling the wing and causing an uncommanded descent, pitch, or roll. Ice blockage or airspeed or altitude measurement instrumentation can cause loss of control or navigation errors. All airports should have adequate observations for the creation of products which provide a detailed local analysis of current icing conditions and pending changes. Data sampling rates should be increased during icing conditions in order to identify deteriorating conditions quickly. High resolution, small-scale forecasts are required to make ground icing information as accurate as possible. All observation, analysis, and forecast products relating to ground icing need to be disseminated rapidly to a wide audience, and these products need to be tailored to the varying needs of recipients. These products also need to be distributed to airport managers, airline station managers coordinating flights, and ground de-icing crews in order for them to perform their tasks with maximum effectiveness. In-flight icing is also very dangerous and has a major impact on the efficiency of flight operations. Similar to ground icing, rerouting and delays of commercial carriers to avoid icing conditions lead to late arrivals and the resulting ripple effect throughout the National Airspace System. Weather observation systems need to be expanded to provide higher spatial resolution for icing related variables, with particular emphasis on humidity and cloud data. Observations, analyses, and forecasts of icing conditions need to meet specific standards of accuracy for geographical location and extent, as well as for duration and intensity. Improved precision will allow pilots and dispatchers to make avoidance planes with confidence. Icing observation, analysis, and forecast products should be in clear and understandable formats that can be transmitted to ATC and airlines operations center personnel as well as directly to pilots. In general, pilots would benefit from improved understanding of icing conditions and the impact of ice accretion on airframe performance. Simulators capable of replication in-flight icing provide the best means of gaining this knowledge and experience under controlled situations. However, such simulators are not generally available for helicopters and small airplanes because of cost and large carriers do not currently simulate flight characteristics with ice accretions on airframe parts. In the case of terminal wind and temperature hazards, weather hazards within the terminal area are dangerous because encountering them so near to the ground can require more altitude to recover than is available. The effects of these hazards on aircraft include unexpected motion in all directions, loss of aircraft control, and airspeed fluctuations that may induce aerodynamic stall. Variations in ambient temperatures in the terminal area can result in aborted takeoffs and inability to remain airborne once the aircraft is out of ground effect. Weather observation networks within the terminal area must provide sufficient resolution in space and time to allow identification of rapidly moving gust fronts and severe turbulent cells that produce downbusts. Atmospheric conditions that determine the path of wake vortices, such as winds, temperatures, and stability, must be observed and measured. Current sensor and processor technologies under development offer the potential to provide significant amounts of low-level wind information. Commercially available, FAA certified wind shear sensors are slowly being installed in the commercial airliner fleet. These devices will reduce wind shear-related accidents as more aircraft are equipped. Analysis and forecast products that decision makers rely on must provide information that can be rapidly understood. Graphics and text products can be of great use to aircraft operations and service providers for planning purposes and for alerting aircraft in the terminal area of hazardous conditions. Non-convective turbulence is a major aviation hazard because all aircraft are vulnerable to turbulent motions. Non-convective turbulence can be present at any altitude and in a wide range of weather conditions, often occurring in relatively clear skies as clear-air turbulence. The effect of turbulence ranges from a jostling of the aircraft to sudden accelerations that can result in serious injury and temporary loss of aircraft control. Analyses and forecasts of regions of high turbulence can only meet specific standards for accuracy of geographic location and time duration if they are based on high-resolution observations. Not only will possible satellite-based turbulence sensors and forward-looking sensors on aircraft themselves be invaluable to air crews, but, if they can be integrated into the normal data streams used for analyses and forecast models, they will greatly improve analysis and forecast accuracy. This level of accuracy will require observations that employ greatly expanded systems of fixed and mobile sensors that can provide data for finer-resolution forecast models. Turbulence observation, analysis, and forecast products should be provided to decision makers in clear and understandable formats. Such products should relate turbulence location and intensity to geographical position, terrain features, and altitudes. The products must be easy to understand at a quick glance from the pilot, consistent in content across a range of providers, and available to the entire spectrum of decision makers. Volcanic ash and other airborne hazardous material are not encountered as much as the areas, however, is it still largely a safety issue that is not overlooked. The combination of the pulverized rock and acidic gases found in volcanic ash can significantly affect the performance of jet engines at cruise altitudes. Ash clouds are often invisible, particularly at night. Some of the direct effects of ash include: fusing to compressor and turbine blades, leading to complete engine failure; abrading cockpit windows; abrading airframe and flight surfaces, thereby lessening aircraft performance; clogging the pitot-static system, producing inaccurate airspeed and altitude inputs to the navigation system; damaging the air conditioning and equipment cooling systems; and contaminating aircraft avionics and fuel. A similar hazard to aviation can exist when accidental releases of radioactive materials or toxic chemicals into the atmosphere occur during and industrial or transport accident. Additionally, blowing dust and smoke from forest fires can cover large areas and pose a hazard for aircraft flying at low and mid-altitudes and taking off and landing at affected airports. Analysis and forecasts of volcanic ash trajectory and dispersion need to meet specific standards of accuracy for geographical location and extent, as well as for duration, especially at flight levels above 25,000 feet. These forecasts need to include not only the projected trajectory of the ash cloud over space and time but also the flight levels that are affected. In addition, there is a need to understand the composition and density of the cloud. As forecast precision improves, pilots, dispatchers, and ATC providers can make avoidance plans with greater confidence. This improved precision will require resolution input data and finer-scale modeling tools. Among the many programs being led by the FAA in the Department of Transportation, the Forecast Icing Potential (FIP) product became operational in March 2004. The FIP product is now available to the general aviation community, along with the Current Icing Potential (CIP) product, on the Aviating Digital Data Service website. FAAs Graphical Turbulence Guidance product (GTG) product for flight level 200 and higher became operational in March 2003 for meteorologists and dispatchers. The Terminal Convective Weather Forecast (TCWF) product is an automated, one hour graphical forecast of convection intended for use by FAA traffic managers in terminal areas with high traffic density. It has now been successfully tested at Dallas/Ft. Worth, Orlando, New York, and Memphis airports. In 2006, TCWF was installed at operational Integrated Terminal Weather sites. The Terminal Ceiling and Visibility (TCV) product, which provides automated forecasts for airports with chronic low ceiling and visibility risks, had its test bed trial in New York City airports in 2004. The Water Vapor Sensing System (WVSS) is a sensor system that automatically makes in situ water vapor observations from commercial aircraft on which it is installed and downlinks the data for use by weather forecasters. The WVSS became operational in May 2004. During the first quarter of 2004, NASAs Synthetic Vision System (SVS) has its initial flight evaluation for air transport. For this evaluation, SVS display concepts were integrated with concepts to prevent runway incursions. In 2005 the Terminal Prediction and Warning Systems (TPAWS) project had in-service evaluations of its Enhanced Turbulence Radar and the Turbulence AutoPIREPS System (TAPS). In NASAs Weather Information Communications (WINCOMM) project, the next generation weather datalink technology had its initial lab evaluation during the forth quarter of 2004. A flight evaluation of this datalink technology was performed in the third quarter of 2005. With a successful completion of ground and flight testing of a receiver and antenna in Johannesburg, South Africa, NASA has started to prepare for experiments using high-speed aircraft in areas of the world with limited access to timely weather data. NASA plans to provide a more advanced antenna design and consultation support. This successful test of real-time aviation-related weather data is a positive step toward solving communications-specific issues associated with the dissemination of weather data directly to the cockpit. The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) mesoscale modeling activity is a consortium effort led by NOAA with support from other agencies and academia. WRF models continue to move into operational use in various applications, some of which have direct and significant impact on improving aviation forecasts. During 2004, a WRF version became operational at NOAAs National Centers for Environmental Prediction and the Forecast Systems Laboratory. Implementation of a WRF model in the NCEP High Resolution Window began in October 2004. A WRF also model became operational at the Air Force Weather Agency in 2005. Integrated Radar Data Services (IRaDS) began operations in August 2004. IRaDS is a collaborative effort to concentrate and transmit high-resolution weather radar data at cost for use by the private sector, government agencies, and researchers. Development of the Prototype Aviation Collaborative Effort (PACE) continued additional evaluations in the spring of 2005 for the Tactical Convective Hazard Product and Crosswind Tactical Decision Aid. The plan for this suite of products tailored for the needs of an air route traffic control center includes icing, turbulence, and ceiling and visibility products. NOAA is also collaborating with the aviation community on weather training for general aviation pilots. The weather related accident data for general aviation underscore the importance of these efforts for reducing weather-related accidents. The Pilot Training Initiative (PTI), a collaboration with the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association Air Safety Foundation and Meteorologix, provided live seminars nationwide in most U.S. in 2005. The PTI targets the general aviation community and Certified Flight Instructors. Another important part of the overall education and training for technology transfer, NOAAs aviation operations course for National Weather Service aviation forecasters, became operational in Novembers 2004. Through my research, I discovered that there were several themes which cross-cut all the presentations, discussions, and summaries on updating aviation weather technology. Products need to be requirements driven but resources are often the limiting factor to product development. As communication and display technology advance, graphical products are preferred over alpha-numeric. The time from development to operations needs to be minimized through rapid prototyping together with a process of pre-planned product development. Training needs to be an integral part of product development and to increase the likelihood for success, the user need to be involved in the product development process. In the development process, there is a need for coordination, collaboration, cooperation and standardization among the agencies and universities to the maximum extent possible. Ensuring usability of products is important because they should be adaptable to varied users. A process of product validation should be established which ensures a quality product. As called for in the National Aviation Weather Initiatives document, there is a need to continue development of a capability, via applied research, to generate weather observations, warning, and forecasts with higher resolutions and accuracy. This will require a concerted philosophy on the part of the aviation weather community toward the development and use of a wider array of sensors for mesoscale to microscale observations and products produced from fined scale models. The roles and responsibilities between the public and private sectors in product development, research and development should be reviewed. Finally, there is a need for consistency between products to facilitate meteorological discussion, determine impacts on operations, and facilitate the decision making process. As far as perspectives for future steps, the groundwork has been done. The Strategic Plan provided the vision of a safer and more efficient National Airspace System and the National Aviation Weather Initiative have focused on specific areas where modest investments can reap significant benefits. It now falls to the agencies and the aviation industry to continue with the solution-based approach which will lead to continued support of existing programs and justification for new programs to satisfy the current initiatives. Recommendations The need to develop a comprehensive National Aviation Weather Training The need for a comprehensive examination of the roles, missions, and functions between the private and public sectors in the provision of timely, accurate, relevant, mission tailored weather support to the full spectrum of aviation activities. The need for a review and improvement of the process for establishing, validating, and prioritizing requirements. The need to examine the coordination and collaboration process for research and development. The need to develop a coordinated process to assure that improvements in products, dissemination, and training satisfy requirements, are integrated and properly reflected in appropriate policy and procedures. The National Research Council should consider ways to review and report on progress by federal agencies on recommendations provided in the research council report, Aviation Weather Services, A Call for Federal Leadership and Action. 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